Critical Thinking, Creative Thinking, and Communication:
A Brief Literature Review of
The Most Fundamental and Powerful Concepts

I. What is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking has different meanings for different people. Some experts define it simply as "good thinking," "thinking well," or "thinking smarter" (Bonnett, 1995; Gardner and Johnson, 1996; Hyland & Johnson, 1998; Perkins, 1993). Other experts have more specific definitions:

• Paul and Elder (2005) believe "Critical thinking is a process by which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them" (p. 1).
• Facione (1990) gives the Delphi Report's conclusion as "We understand critical thinking to be purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which that judgment is based. CT is essential as a tool of inquiry" (p. 14).
• Kuefiss (1989) understands critical thinking as "a process to figure out what to believe or not about a situation, phenomenon, problem or controversy for which no single definitive answer or solution exists. The term implies a diligent, open-minded search for understanding, rather than for discovery of a necessary conclusion" (p. 42).
• Nosich (2006) sees critical thinking as reasonably reflective thinking focused on deciding what to do when performing critical thinking. The thinker asks the question, answers the question, then believes the results of the reasoning that has occurred.

What, then, are the characteristics of a critical thinker? According to Paul and Elder (2005), a well-cultivated critical thinker:

• "Raises vital questions and problems"
• Formulates them clearly and precisely
• "Gathers and assesses relevant information"
• Arrives at "well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards"
• "Thinks open-mindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences"
• "Communicates effectively with others …."

In summary, the most fundamental and powerful characteristics of critical thinking are:

• Methodology (the critical thinker employs a well-defined process with a purpose in mind)
• Self-awareness (the critical thinker is metacognitive, conscious of the methodology)
• Assessment (the critical thinker judges the results of the methodology's use)
• Transferability (the critical thinker can apply the methodology to various situations, problems, questions, and bodies of information)

II. What Is Creative Thinking?

Very little literature exists toward a definition of creative thinking.

• Paul & Elder (2004), however, identify three conditions as being necessary for creative thinking to occur at a high level: "a minimal level of innate intellectual capacity, an environment that stimulates the development of that capacity, [and] a positive response and inner motivation on the part of the [thinker]" (p. 14). While they acknowledge critical and creative thinking as "both achievements of thought," they make an important distinction between the two: "Creativity masters a process of making or producing, criticality a process of assessing or judging" (p. 4).
• Thompson (2006) expands on the distinction between the two thought processes: "To think creatively is to produce something new or different, whether it may be a tangible product, an idea, a methodology, or a strategy. In contrast to critical thinking, which leads you to ask the question, 'Why?' (For example, 'Why are we doing it this way?'), creative thinking leads you to ask the question, 'Why not?' (For example, 'Why not try this different way of doing it?'). When you think critically, you look 'inside the box' and evaluate the quality of its particular content; when you think creatively, you look 'outside the box' to imagine other possible packages containing different types of content" (p. 21).
• Perkins (1989) finds creative thinkers are distinguished by a strong commitment to a personal aesthetic, a powerful drive to develop order out of chaos, an excellence in exploring options to problem solve, and a willingness to seek criticism and feedback to test their ideas.
• Barron (1989) identifies creative thinkers as those who have the mental faculty of "adaptive, flexibility"--the ability to integrate complexity with a sensitivity to problems.
• In the revision of Bloom's taxonomy, Anderson et al (2001) place "Creating" at the pinnacle of higher-order thinking.

In summary, the most fundamental and powerful concepts relative to creative thinking are:

• Methodology (the creative thinker follows a well-defined process with a purpose in mind)
• Significance (the creative thinker demonstrates the highest cognitive domain)
• Originality (the creative thinker arrives at something new)
• Result (the creative thinker produces something).

III. How Do Critical Thinking, Creative Thinking, and Communication Complement One Another?

Critical and creative thinking can be conceptualized as the intertwined strands of a double helix. The two types of thinking reinforce each other.

• Paul and Elder (2004) posit that "Purposeful thinking requires both critical and creative thinking. Both are intimately connected to figuring things out. There is a natural marriage between them. Indeed, all truly excellent thinking combines these two dimensions. Whenever our thinking excels, it excels because we succeed in designing or engendering, fashioning or originating, creating or producing results and outcomes appropriate to our ends in thinking" (p. 5). They continue, "We create and assess; we assess what we create; we assess as we create" (p. 37).
• Thompson (2006) argues that "Although creative and critical thinking represent different forms of higher-level thinking, they go hand-in-hand…. If critical thinking reveals that the quality of what we’ve created is poor, then shift back to creative thinking to generate something that's new and improved. Or, we may start by using critical thinking to evaluate an old idea or approach and come to the judgment that it's not very good" (p. 21).
• Guilford (1967) stresses creative and critical thinking involve complementary mental processes, known as "divergent" and "convergent" thinking. The former is creative (searching for possibilities in all directions) while the latter is critical (focuses narrowly on a particular notion to assess it).

Communication is the way by which the critical and creative processes are transmitted from the thinker to an audience.

• Thompson (2006) states that communication becomes the medium for the student to demonstrate that s/he is a critical and creative thinker.
• Paul and Elder (2004) hold that communication involves reading, writing, speaking, and listening, the "windows" whereby we evaluate (e.g., understand, judge, etc.) the person's critical and creative thinking process.

IV. What Is the Significance of the QEP to EKU?

The QEP at EKU is a reflection of a growing national recognition that institutions in higher education must do a better job of teaching students to think critically and creatively. Derek Bok (2005), President Emeritus of Harvard, states, "Ninety-five percent of all American universities believe that developing the powers of critical thinking of their students is not just a, but the most important objective of a college education" (Address, 2005 SACS/COC meeting). This concern for developing critical thinking in students has been noted by many contemporary educators, federal and state governments, and educational agencies. Both past and emerging literature in education supports the development of higher-order thinking skills in students (Bloom, 1956; Paul & Nosich, 1992; Reznik, 1998). The "Goals 2000: Educate America Act" [passed by Congress in 1994] (U.S. Congress, 1994) includes a goal to increase a student's ability to think critically, communicate effectively, and solve problems. This trend is also reflected in higher education accrediting agencies that now require an emphasis on critical thinking skills in higher education (Association of American Colleges, 1985; National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, 2002; Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business, 2005; Accreditation Council for Occupational Therapy Education, 2000).

Furthermore, the workplace demands employees who can think on their feet, innovate, and solve problems effectively. Employers complain that American universities fail to teach students how to think and solve problems (Halpern, 1993; Rutgers, 2005). As noted in the EKU Baseline data, while alumni report critical thinking as essential to their work life, critical thinking is rarely identified as significant in course objectives. There is clearly a mismatch of instructors' goals and student needs.

The primary focus of our QEP is the development of students who use higher-order thinking skills and who are ultimately responsible for their own learning as they explore, evaluate, expand, and express information and ideas. Moreover, many professionals view critical thinking, learning, problem solving, creative thinking, and effective communication as an interrelated set of higher-order thinking skills (Anderson, 1980; Halpern, 1993; Hayes, 1989; Jih, 2003). Our QEP proposal recognizes these higher-order skills are essential to life-long learning, effective citizenship, and real-world problem solving necessary for the long-term success of our students.

In addition, the QEP addresses the recent tectonic shift in higher education from the teaching to the learning paradigm. Critical and creative thinking provide foundational skills for student-centered active learning.

Most significantly, the QEP responds to the new University Strategic Plan and is a natural outgrowth of its Mission Statement, Vision Statement, Core Values, and Institutional Goals.

Our Mission Statement is "Eastern Kentucky University is a student-centered, comprehensive public university dedicated to high-quality instruction, scholarship, and service." The focus of the QEP is primarily upon students, and the implementation of the QEP theme will result in high-quality instruction that will in turn lead to high-quality scholarship/creative activities and service.

Our Vision Statement is "Eastern Kentucky University will hold national distinction as a leading, comprehensive university focused on students and learning." Once again, the implementation of the QEP will be one way for EKU to make giant strides toward national distinction and becoming a leading comprehensive university.

Our Core Values are: Civic Responsibility and Civility, Dignity and Diversity, Excellence and Innovation, Opportunity and Access, Shared Governance and Collaboration, and our most central value, Student Success. Certainly students who become critical and creative thinkers who can communicate effectively will not only reflect these values, but help perpetuate them.

Our Institutional Goals are:

• To promote and support an inclusive climate that respects and celebrates diversity by attracting, developing, and educating a diverse student, faculty, and staff population.
• To continuously assess and improve the services and infrastructure of the University to support and maintain high-quality programs.
• To promote learning through high-quality programs, research, and support services.
• To develop and enhance an environment facilitating intellectual curiosity, cultural opportunities, and problem-solving abilities for members of the University community.
• To increase and enhance external and internal constituency engagement, while maintaining a connection with the southeastern region of Kentucky.

While the QEP indirectly reflects many of these goals, it directly addresses promoting "learning through high-quality programs" (Strategic Direction 3.6 is "Develop and implement a Quality Enhancement Plan [QEP*] involving faculty, staff, and students") and facilitating "problem-solving abilities."

In conclusion, our QEP theme is well supported by current research and strongly reflects the 2006 Eastern Kentucky University Strategic Plan. If implemented, the QEP has the potential to unite the University community as never before and to move us forward together.